European Powers in India

The INA was first started by Captain Mohan Singh with the help of the Japanese. Later, Rash Behari Bose handed over the leadership to Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943. The army's goal was to march to Delhi and liberate India from the British. It had three main brigades named after Gandhi, Nehru, and Azad. It also had a women's unit. The INA fought alongside Japanese forces in the Northeast of India.

Monotheism is the belief in a single, all-powerful God. The Brahmo Samaj used this concept to reject the worship of many different idols. They believed that the ancient Upanishads supported the idea of one formless God. For example, they held prayer meetings where no images or statues were allowed. This helped simplify religion for the common people.

This refers to the election for the Congress President in 1939. Bose stood for election against Pattabhi Sitaramayya. Sitaramayya was the candidate supported by Mahatma Gandhi. Bose won the election, but Gandhi called it his own personal defeat. Due to disagreements with the Congress Working Committee, Bose resigned. Rajendra Prasad then became the President. This event showed the deep split between the radical and moderate wings of the party.

Advent of European Powers in India

The advent of European powers in India marked a pivotal shift in the subcontinent's history, transitioning from mere trade to eventual colonial rule. Driven by the desire for spices, textiles, and other oriental goods, and seeking new sea routes, various European nations established trading posts and factories, initiating a period of intense commercial and political rivalry.

Key European Powers and Their Establishments

• Portuguese (Late 15th Century onwards):

  • Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498, marking the first direct sea route to India.
  • Francisco de Almeida (1505-1509) was the first Portuguese governor, initiating the 'Blue Water Policy' to control the Indian Ocean.
  • Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509-1515) is considered the founder of Portuguese power, capturing Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate in 1510 and making it their administrative center.
  • They established factories at Cochin, Cannanore, Daman, Diu, and Hugli.
  • Their system of issuing 'Cartazes' (naval trade licenses) asserted their maritime supremacy.

• Dutch (Early 17th Century):

  • The United East India Company of the Netherlands (VOC) was formed in 1602.
  • Their first factory was established at Masulipatnam in 1605.
  • Other important factories included Pulicat (their main center until 1690), Surat, Chinsura, Nagapatnam, and Patna.
  • Initially focused on the spice islands of Indonesia, they also traded in Indian textiles, indigo, and saltpetre.

• English (Early 17th Century):

  • The English East India Company (EIC) was formed in 1600.
  • Captain William Hawkins arrived at Jahangir's court in 1609.
  • Their first permanent factory was established at Surat in 1613.
  • Thomas Roe secured imperial farman for trade and factories from Jahangir in 1615.
  • Key settlements included Madras (Fort St. George, 1639), Bombay (acquired in 1668), and Calcutta (Fort William, 1698).

• Danes (Early 17th Century):

  • The Danish East India Company was established in 1616.
  • Founded a factory at Tranquebar near Tanjore in 1620.
  • Their principal settlement was at Serampore near Calcutta.
  • Their factories were not commercially significant and were sold to the British in 1845.
  • They were more known for missionary activities.

• French (Mid-17th Century):

  • The French were the last major European power to arrive.
  • Compagnie des Indes Orientales (French East India Company) was founded in 1664 by Colbert, Louis XIV's minister.
  • Their first factory was established at Surat in 1667 by Francois Caron.
  • Another factory was set up in Masulipatnam in 1669.
  • Pondicherry became their main stronghold, founded in 1673.

The Factory System and Trading Posts

European powers established 'factories' which were not manufacturing units but fortified trading posts. These served as warehouses for goods, residences for company officials (factors), and defensive outposts. They were crucial for securing trade routes, storing goods, and facilitating transactions with local merchants. Initially, there was no serious rivalry as demand for Indian goods exceeded supply, but as competition intensified, these factories became centers of political and military power.

Definition

The Carnatic Wars (1746-1763) were a series of three military conflicts between the British East India Company and the French East India Company, primarily fought on the Coromandel Coast (Carnatic region) of South India. These wars were a direct reflection of the Anglo-French rivalry in Europe and ultimately decided the future of European colonial power in India, establishing British dominance. Following these, the Battles of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764) were pivotal in securing British supremacy over Bengal, a rich province, and laid the foundation for the British Empire in India.

Key Facts

The Carnatic Wars

• First Carnatic War (1746-1748):

  • Cause: Extension of the Austrian War of Succession in Europe.
  • Immediate Cause in India: English navy seizing French ships, leading to French retaliation by seizing Madras in 1746.
  • Key Event: Battle of St. Thome (1746) – French forces under Captain Paradise defeated the Nawab of Carnatic's army, highlighting the superiority of European military discipline.
  • Result: Ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Madras was returned to the English, and French got their territories in North America.

• Second Carnatic War (1749-1754):

  • Cause: Exploitation of local dynastic disputes in Hyderabad and Carnatic by both European powers.
  • Key Figures: French Governor Dupleix supported Muzaffar Jang (for Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (for Carnatic). The English supported Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-din respectively.
  • Key Event: Battle of Ambur (1749) – Combined French and allied forces defeated and killed Anwar-ud-din. Siege of Arcot (1751) – Robert Clive's daring capture and defence of Arcot turned the tide, weakening French influence.
  • Result: Dupleix was recalled by the French government. Ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry (1754), where both companies agreed not to interfere in Indian dynastic disputes.

• Third Carnatic War (1758-1763):

  • Cause: Extension of the Seven Years' War in Europe.
  • Key Event: Battle of Wandiwash (1760) – Decisive English victory under Sir Eyre Coote over the French under Count de Lally. French lost Pondicherry.
  • Result: Ended with the Treaty of Paris (1763). French factories in India were restored but could not be fortified, effectively ending French political ambitions in India.

British Supremacy in Bengal

• Battle of Plassey (1757):

  • Combatants: British East India Company (led by Robert Clive) vs. Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah of Bengal.
  • Cause: Nawab's hostility towards English fortification, misuse of dastaks, and the capture of Calcutta (Black Hole Tragedy).
  • Outcome: A decisive, though largely pre-arranged, British victory due to the defection of Mir Jafar (Siraj's commander-in-chief). Mir Jafar was made the new Nawab.
  • Significance: Marked the beginning of direct British political control over Bengal, providing vast resources for further expansion.

• Battle of Buxar (1764):

  • Combatants: British East India Company (led by Major Hector Munro) vs. the combined forces of Mir Qasim (deposed Nawab of Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh), and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
  • Cause: Mir Qasim's attempts to assert independence from the Company and abolish internal duties for all traders.
  • Outcome: Decisive British victory, proving their military superiority over organized Indian forces.
  • Significance: Legitimized British political power. The Mughal Emperor became a Company pensioner.

• Treaty of Allahabad (1765):

  • Signed by Robert Clive with Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah of Awadh.
  • Provisions: Mughal Emperor granted the Company the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. In return, the Company paid an annual tribute of 26 lakh rupees and granted him Kora and Allahabad. Awadh became a buffer state, paying war indemnity.

• Dual Government of Bengal (1765-1772):

  • Introduced by Robert Clive.
  • Mechanism: The Company acquired Diwani functions (revenue collection) from the Emperor and Nizamat functions (police and judicial administration) from the Nawab. However, the Company exercised Nizamat indirectly through its right to nominate the Deputy Subahdar. The Nawab was responsible for administration without effective power or resources.
  • Impact: Led to severe exploitation of Bengal's resources, administrative breakdown, and widespread famine, eventually abolished by Warren Hastings in 1772.

Exam Angle

The Carnatic Wars and the events in Bengal are crucial for understanding the transition of the British East India Company from a trading entity to a political and territorial power. UPSC questions often focus on the causes, key battles, treaties, and the long-term consequences of these events, particularly the reasons for French failure and the impact of the Dual Government. The shift from indirect influence to direct control and the economic exploitation of Bengal are recurring themes.

This Act was a major step toward the centralization of British rule in India. Before this, the British had separate governors for different regions. This Act designated the Governor-General of Bengal as the 'Governor-General of India'. It gave him full authority over all civil and military matters in the country. It also took away the legislative powers of the Governors of Bombay and Madras. Lord William Bentinck was the first person to hold this new powerful title. This made the administration unified across British India.

In 1892, the Arya Samaj split over the issue of education. One group (College Party) wanted English-medium education and modern subjects. They founded the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) schools. The other group (Mahatma Party) wanted traditional Sanskrit-based education. They founded the Gurukul Kangri in 1902. Example: Lala Lajpat Rai supported DAV, while Swami Shraddhanand supported the Gurukul system.

The Sunset Clause was a strict rule within the Permanent Settlement system of 1793. The British government fixed a specific date for revenue payment. If a Zamindar failed to pay the total amount by sunset on that specific day, the government had the right to take away his land. The land would then be sold at an auction to the highest bidder. This created great pressure on Zamindars. For example, many old Zamindar families lost their ancestral lands because they could not collect tax from farmers on time due to droughts.

This was an organization founded by Debendranath Tagore in 1839. Its purpose was to study India's past and spread the message of the Upanishads. In 1842, it merged with the Brahmo Samaj. This group helped provide a strong intellectual base for the reform movement. It published journals to educate people about social issues and ancient philosophy.

This term refers to the 'rebirth' of Indian culture and thinking in the 19th century. It was triggered by the contact between Indian traditions and Western education. The Brahmo Samaj was the starting point of this change. It led to a movement where Indians started questioning old superstitions using logic. An example is the push for modern science alongside spiritual study.

Bose was under strict British guard at his home in Calcutta. On the night of January 16, 1941, he escaped in a car driven by his nephew, Sisir Bose. He disguised himself as a Muslim insurance agent named Ziauddin. He traveled by train to Peshawar and then crossed into Afghanistan. From there, he went to the Soviet Union and finally reached Berlin, Germany, to meet Hitler.

The Shuddhi movement was a social process to bring back people into the Hindu fold. It was for those who had converted to Islam or Christianity. This was a new concept in Hinduism because it was not traditionally a proselytizing religion. It aimed at social integration but also led to communal tensions. Example: A person returning to their original faith through a purification ritual.

This was the central philosophy of Swami Dayanand. He believed that later Hindu scriptures like Puranas were full of superstitions. He argued that the four Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva) were the divine truth. By 'Go back to Vedas', he meant adopting the simple and logical life of the Vedic age. Example: Rejecting the complex rituals performed by priests today in favor of simple Vedic chants.